Eschatology

Eschatology for the Layman

by JK Sellers

April, 10. 2019

Introduction:

My journey into the prophecies of the last days started 5 decades ago. It has been frustrating at times but very rewarding and spiritually uplifting. To know that God sent His Son to Atone for our sins and lead us back to Him has strengthened my faith and testimony of a loving Heavenly Father. The frustrating aspect of my study of the signs and prophecies that lead up to the life of Jesus Christ, the Atonement, and His Return, is the wide variety and countless variations of the interpretations found within Christendom. This article is my attempt to offer newcomers a clear, concise introduction to the major perspectives on the end times. While it doesn’t cover everything, it gives a general overview of key beliefs, often using the words of those who hold each view. I’ve also included sources for anyone who wants to dive deeper.

Eschatology:

The word eschatology meaning "study of the last times", is derived from the Greek, ἔσχατος (eschatos) meaning 'last' and logy meaning "the study of". It is the study of the prophecies and events of the last days as found in the Bible.

Eschatology is the most written about and most hotly debated and contentious subject found in Christendom. Most of the scriptures relating to prophecy and the end times are vague, ambiguous and often filled with ancient imagery and symbolism, which leads to many variations of interpretations among the different Christian philosophies. So much so that it creates contentious divisions among us that I am sure the Lord would not be pleased with.

At the heart of Christian eschatology is the Second Coming of Jesus — His return in glory. His first coming, 2,000 years ago, brought the Atonement and the Resurrection. The Second Coming, also called the Parousia (Greek for “arrival” or “presence”), will bring judgment and redemption — rewarding the faithful and destroying wickedness.

The Major topics in eschatology also include:

In the sections ahead, I’ll explore each of these concepts, along with the different interpretations that Christians hold. While there are many variations, I’ll stick to the most common and widely discussed views.

Definitions:

Before we dive into the different views on the end times, it’s helpful to go over a few terms that come up again and again in eschatological discussions. These concepts are foundational — and while believers might disagree on the details, understanding these will help make sense of what follows.

The Rapture (Caught Up)

The term “Rapture” refers to the moment when believers in Christ are caught up to meet Him at His return. This comes from Paul’s letter to the Thessalonians, where he writes that when the Lord comes, the dead in Christ will rise first, and those who are still alive will be “caught up” with them in the clouds.(1 Thess4:16-17)

Here Paul uses the Greek word, harpazo, ἁρπάζω, meaning 'to seize or snatch away' to describe how those who believe in Christ will rise to join Him in Heaven along with all the resurrected dead believers. The Latin Vulgate (382 AD) translation of the Bible uses the word rapere (caught up), which is where the English term 'rapture' comes from.

Jesus explains it in Matthew 24:39-42: "Two shall be in the field; the one shall be taken, and the other left." Most Christians expect some version of this, but the timing—before, during, or after a time of trouble—differs widely We’ll explore that later.

For more on the Rapture:

Tribulation of wars, meteors, and violence.

The Tribulation (Sorrow, Affliction)

Before the Second Coming, the Bible describes a time of great suffering on the earth — what’s called the Tribulation. Jesus speaks of it as a time unlike anything the world has ever seen: war, famine, persecution, disease, and global upheaval.

Matthew 24:21-22: 21 For then shall be great tribulation, such as was not since the beginning of the world to this time, no, nor ever shall be. 22 And except those days should be shortened, there should no flesh be saved: but for the elect's sake those days shall be shortened. [emphasis added]

Different views exist on when the Tribulation happens — or whether it's already happened. Some say it occurred in the past (Preterists), some say it began in the first century and is still ongoing (Historicists), while others believe it is a future event yet to come (Futurists). See also: Pre-Tribulation, Mid-Tribulation and Post-Tribulation.le others look for it in the near future (Futurists). See also: Pretribulation, Midtribulation and Posttribulation.

For more information on the Great Tribulation:

The Millennium (Thousand Years of Peace)

The Millennium is a 1,000-year reign of Christ mentioned in Revelation 20:1-6 (KJV): "And I saw an angel… and he laid hold on the dragon, that old serpent, which is the Devil, and Satan, and bound him a thousand years… They lived and reigned with Christ a thousand years." Chiliasm (from Greek "thousand") is the belief in a literal 1,000-year kingdom on earth.

Different views exist on when the Tribulation happens — or whether it's already happened. Some say it occurred in the past (Preterists), some say it began in the first century and is still ongoing (Historicists), while others believe it is a future event yet to come (Futurists).

There are three major views on the Millennium, which we’ll break down in more detail later:

These will be explained later in the article.

For more on The Millennium see:

Some Catholic and Orthodox Churches consider chiliasm to be a heresy. See: The Error of Chiliasm by Fr. Michael Pomazansky. The Catholic and Orthodox Churches historically rejected a literal earthly millennium (chiliasm) as taught by some early Christians, favoring a spiritual interpretation.

Gods Wrath

The End of the World by John Martin

The Wrath of God (God’s Judgement)

Also known as “The Great and Dreadful Day of the Lord”

The Bible tells us that when Christ returns, God’s judgment will be poured out on the wicked. This final outpouring is often referred to as the Wrath of God — a time of great upheaval, destruction, and divine justice.

In the Book of Revelation, this wrath is described through a series of dramatic images: angels pouring out bowls of judgment, earthquakes, hail, plagues, and cosmic signs. It’s a powerful, sobering picture of a holy God bringing an end to rebellion and injustice.

But this isn’t just blind destruction. Scripture makes it clear that God’s wrath is personal — not mechanical, not fate, not karma. It’s the righteous response of a loving God who has extended grace again and again, but whose patience finally comes to an end1. The Wrath of God is the assurance that no evil will go unpunished — that there is ultimate justice in the universe.

Many passages across both the Old and New Testaments speak of this day — Isaiah, Joel, Zechariah, Matthew, Thessalonians, and Revelation, to name a few. All paint a picture of both fear and hope: fear for those who oppose God, and hope for those who follow Him.

This moment is sometimes confused with the Tribulation, but they are distinct. The Tribulation is a time of suffering, often involving persecution of believers. The Wrath of God, by contrast, is God’s direct judgment on the wicked — His final act of cleansing before the new heaven and new earth2.

For more on the Wrath of God and The Great and Dreadful Day of the Lord see:

Revelation 11:14-15, 18-19, Revelation 14:10, Revelation 16, Isaiah 2:12-21, Isaiah 13:6-13, Isaiah 34:1-10, Jeremiah 10:10, Joel 2:1-3, 10-11, 20, 30-31, Zechariah 14:1-9, Matthew 24:29-31, Colossians 3:4-6, 2 Thessalonians 1:6-10.

Parousia (Arrival)

You may run into a few Greek words in your study of Christ’s Second Coming. One of them, Parousia (παρουσία) is a Greek term meaning "presence" or "arrival," often used in Christian theology to refer to the Second Coming of Jesus Christ, when he will return to judge the living and the dead and establish his kingdom fully. It carries connotations of a divine, transformative event.3 This word was used thirteen times by the writers of the New Testament when describing the Second Coming of the Lord Jesus Christ. 1 Corinthians 15:23; 1 Thessalonians 2:19; 3:13; 4:15; 5:23; 2 Thessalonians 2:1,8; James 5:7,8; 2 Peter 1:16; 3:4,12; 1 John 2:28. Parousia is often used by scholars to describe the Second Coming.

"Recent archaeological discoveries have explained why the word received such general Christian use in the special sense. In Hellenistic Greek it was used for the arrival of a ruler at a place, as is evidenced by inscriptions in Egypt, Asia Minor, etc."4

Imminence (Advent/Near)

Imminence is another word you will run into. It is the belief that the coming of Jesus Christ could happen at any moment and that no further fulfillment of prophesy is needed. This doctrine goes hand in hand with the teachings of pre-tribulationism where the rapture could happen at any moment. It goes without saying that Post-tribulationists and Historicists, among others, believe that additional prophecies are needed to be fulfilled before the rapture and Second Coming will occur and that even though it is near it is not 'imminent'.      

For more on Immanency see:

Four Main Divisions

In Christianity there are four main divisions on eschatological thought: Preterism, Historicism, Futurism and Idealism.

Preterism (Past)

Preterism (from Latin praeteritus, "past") says most prophecies—like the Tribulation or Christ’s "coming"—happened already, around 70 AD when Jerusalem fell to Rome. Matthew 24:34 (KJV) fuels this: "This generation shall not pass, till all these things be fulfilled." Full Preterists see it all as spiritual, not a physical end of the world. Partial Preterists (or "Orthodox" ones) say most, but not all, is done—leaving room for a final return. It’s like saying the big game’s over; we’re just in the post-show.

Historicism (Unfolding History/Prophecy)

Historicism is an approach to interpreting biblical prophecy, particularly in the Book of Revelation, that sees these prophecies as describing the unfolding of history over the past 20 centuries. Historicists view symbols like the Dragon, Beast, False Prophet, and Whore of Babylon as representing the pagan Roman Empire, papal Rome (Europe under the popes’ rule), the Papacy, and the Roman Catholic Church, while many also interpret the smoke from the Abyss and locust invasion as the rise and spread of Islam. This method treats prophecy as "pre-written history," comparing past events to prophetic texts to understand what has been fulfilled and what remains, allowing for continual re-evaluation as knowledge of history and the Bible deepens. Central to Protestant thought during the Reformation, historicism has largely been overtaken by futurism among modern evangelical Christians, though it remains a flexible interpretive framework with varied opinions on specific details rather than a rigid system.

For more on Historicism see:

Futurism

Preterism is like saying the big game already happened; Futurism says it’s still on the schedule.

Futurism is an approach to interpreting biblical prophecy, particularly in the Book of Revelation. Futurists interpret scripture in a way to conclude that most prophetic events, especially from Revelation 4:1 onward, are still to occur in the future, primarily around the Second Coming of Christ. Rather than seeing these prophecies as fulfilled by similar past events, futurists believe that events like the "seventieth week of Daniel," a time of tribulation, Christ’s return (the Parousia), and the millennium are all in the future.

For more on Futurism see:

Idealism

Idealism, also known as the spiritual or allegorical approach in Christian eschatology, interprets the Book of Revelation as a symbolic depiction of the timeless conflict between good and evil, God and Satan, rather than as prophecies fulfilled in literal, physical, or historical events, distinguishing it from preterism, historicism, and futurism. Unlike those views, which tie Revelation’s imagery to specific past, present, or future events like Nero, the Papacy, or global crises, idealism generally avoids connecting symbols to particular historical moments, except sometimes for the Second Coming and Final Judgment. However, pure idealism, which sees Revelation as entirely timeless with no final consummation of history, is rare; many, like G. K. Beale and Samuel E. Waldron, adopt a modified idealism—often called a "Redemptive-Historical" approach—that acknowledges some historical relevance in Revelation’s symbols while still emphasizing their broader spiritual portrayal of God’s redemptive plan, avoiding overly specific references like those found in other interpretive methods.

For information on Preterist Idealism see:

The Millennium

As mentioned above there are three major views on the Millennium; Premillennialism, Postmillennialism and Amillennialism. The first two believe in a literal thousand-year period where Christ will reign on the earth while Amillennialism teaches that it is symbolic and now in process of realization.

Here is a simplified chart of the three major views on the millennium with Premillennialism divided into Pre and Post-Tribulation:

Millennium Chart

Chart of the differing views of the Millennium

Premillennialism

Premillennialism is a Christian doctrine teaching that Jesus Christ’s Second Coming (the Parousia) will take place before the Millennium, a literal thousand-year period of His peaceful reign on earth. This view, also called chiliasm, was the dominant belief in the early church (A.D. 100-325), supported by influential figures like Barnabas, Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, and Tertullian, as noted by historian Philip Schaff (History of the Christian Church, Scribner, 1884; Vol. 2, p. 614). However, it began to fade in the Catholic Church during Augustine’s time (A.D. 354-430) and was suppressed, surviving only among marginal groups during the medieval period. The Reformation, through groups like the Anabaptists and Huguenots, and later the Puritans, revived premillennialism, which gained significant traction in its dispensational form starting in the British Isles and spreading to America, becoming a prominent belief within modern Evangelicalism, though it is divided into two schools of thought:

Historic Premillennialism or Post-tribulational Premillennialism

Historic Premillennialism, also known as Post-tribulational Premillennialism (There’s a mouth full), is a Christian eschatological view that interprets scriptural prophecies, particularly in Daniel and Revelation, as symbolically outlining the entire history of the church, prompting believers to examine the past and present for fulfilled prophecies and to discern their place in God’s prophetic timeline. Rooted in the teachings of early Church Fathers like Irenaeus, Justin Martyr, and Papias, it holds that Christ’s Second Coming (the Parousia) will precede a literal thousand-year kingdom of God on earth, with the rapture occurring after the tribulation, just before the millennium. Unlike Dispensational Premillennialism, which expects the rapture before the tribulation and emphasizes a sharp theological distinction between Israel and the Church, Historic Premillennialism sees no such radical separation and maintains a post-tribulation rapture, aligning with its historical roots and focus on continuity in God’s redemptive plan.

For more on Historic Premillennialism see:

Dispensational premillennialism or Pre-tribulation Premillennialism

Dispensational Premillennialism, also known as Pre-tribulation Premillennialism, is a Christian eschatological perspective that views Israel and the Church as distinct entities in Scripture, teaching that Jesus Christ will return to rapture believers into heaven just before a seven-year tribulation period. During this tribulation, the Antichrist will dominate the earth, establish a world government, and persecute Jews and Christians who remain, only for Christ to return again with His Church at the end of the seven years to defeat the wicked and inaugurate the millennium, a thousand-year reign of peace. Popularized by John Nelson Darby in the 19th century and further spread through the Scofield Reference Bible in 1909, this view has gained significant traction among modern evangelicals, becoming a widely embraced framework for understanding biblical prophecy and the Second Coming.

For more on Premillennialism see:

Premillennialism can further be divided into five minor sub-categories depending on when the Rapture occurs in relationship to the Tribulation.

Postmillennialism

Postmillennialism teaches that Jesus Christ, through His first century preaching and redemptive work, established His kingdom on earth, equipping the Church with the gospel, empowering it by the Holy Spirit, and commissioning it through the Great Commission to disciple all nations, ultimately leading to a gradual triumph of good over evil where the vast majority of people will be saved. This view anticipates that the Church’s increasing gospel success will usher in an extended era of faith, righteousness, peace, and prosperity across nations before Christ’s Second Coming (the Parousia), at which point He will return visibly and gloriously to conclude history with the general resurrection and final judgment, ushering in the eternal order. Often aligned with Preterism, which sees many or all biblical prophecies as already fulfilled, Postmillennialists—sometimes playfully calling themselves “optimillennialists” in contrast to “pessimillennial” Premillennialists—believe the Kingdom of God’s growth will subdue Satan’s influence, culminating in a world transformed by Christian values prior to Christ’s return.

For more on Postmillennialism see:

Amillennialism

Amillennialism, despite its potentially misleading name, does not deny the existence of a millennium as described in Revelation 20:1-6, but rather interprets it as a symbolic period already in progress, encompassing the current Church age between Christ’s first and second comings, often referred to as “realized millennialism” by scholars like Jay E. Adams for a more accurate description. Unlike Premillennialism, which anticipates a literal, earthly thousand-year reign of Christ following His return (the Parousia), Amillennialists believe that Christ is presently reigning spiritually from heaven, not in a visible, earthly kingdom, and that this reign—whether precisely 1,000 years or not—continues until His Second Coming, when history concludes with the general resurrection and final judgment. This view rejects the idea of a future, physical millennial kingdom, asserting instead that the millennium is a heavenly reality now, characterized by Christ’s rule over His Church, making the term “amillennialism” somewhat imprecise but still commonly used due to its simplicity.

For more on Amillennialism see:

The Rapture

Remember that the Rapture refers to the moment when believers in Christ are caught up to meet Him at His return. There are five major divisions on the timing of this miraculous event:

Pre-tribulation 'Pre-trib' Rapture

Pretribulation Premillennialism, the majority view among modern Premillennialists, teaches that the Rapture will occur before the seven-year Tribulation, allowing believers in Christ to be taken to heaven and spared the hardships faced by the world during this period, as the Church is seen as having no role in Daniel’s seventieth week, which focuses on God’s plan for Israel. This doctrine, rooted in dispensationalism, was pioneered by John Nelson Darby in the 19th century, though it lacked historical precedent in early Christian teachings. The pretribulation rapture gained widespread traction in America through the 1909 Scofield Reference Bible and was further popularized by influential figures like Hal Lindsey in The Late, Great Planet Earth, Tim LaHaye in the Left Behind series, and scholars such as John Walvoord (The Rapture Question), J. Dwight Pentecost (Things to Come), and Charles Ryrie (Dispensationalism Today), cementing its prominence in evangelical Christian thought despite ongoing debates about its origins and interpretation.

For more on the Pretribulation Rapture see:

"The Great Rapture Debate" between Dr. Doug Stauffer (Pre-trib) and Pastor Joe Schimmel (post-trib) in Colorado Springs, CO on June 19, 2016.

Full Video Series by Good Fight Ministries

Midtribulation, or 'Mid-Trib' Rapture

The Mid-Tribulation rapture theory offers a middle ground between Pre-Tribulation and Post-Tribulation views, proposing that the seven-year tribulation is split into two halves—the first characterized as the wrath of man and the second as the wrath of God—with the rapture of the Church occurring at the midpoint, three-and-a-half years before Christ’s Second Coming (the Parousia). Mid-Tribulationists argue that this rapture aligns with the "last trump" mentioned in 1 Corinthians 15:52 and 1 Thessalonians 4:16, which they equate with the seventh trumpet of Revelation 11:15. They see this trumpet as encompassing the seven vials (Revelation 16:1-21) and the latter half of Daniel’s seventieth week, presenting a panoramic vision of future events as if already unfolding, thus marking the rapture’s timing at the tribulation’s midpoint.

For more on Midtribulation rapture theory see:

Post-Tribulation Rapture

Post-Tribulation Premillennialism holds that the Rapture and Christ’s Second Coming are a single event occurring at the end of the tribulation, where the Church is caught up to meet the Lord as He descends from heaven in power and glory, with believers then returning with Him to establish His kingdom. This view, which sees only one coming of Christ, was prevalent in the early Church for over 1,800 years, as evidenced by teachers like Irenaeus (130–202 AD) and Hippolytus (d. 235 AD), second- and third-generation disciples of John the Revelator. Both described the Antichrist’s rise and persecution of the Church during a three-and-a-half-year reign, with Irenaeus noting in Against Heresies that the Antichrist’s tyranny would last this period, forcing saints to flee, and that the resurrection of the just follows his defeat at Christ’s return (Ch. xxv.4, xxxv.1). Similarly, Hippolytus, in his Commentary on the Book of Daniel, depicted the Antichrist as a savage tyrant persecuting the saints until Christ’s coming, with the Two Witnesses of Revelation 11 preaching during this time, only to face tribulation as the Antichrist desolates the world (Ch. 7, 11), affirming the Church’s endurance through tribulation until the Lord’s triumphant arrival.

For more on Post-Tribulation Rapture see:

The Prewrath Rapture

The Prewrath Rapture position is a premillennial eschatological view among evangelical Christians that synthesizes elements of pre-tribulational, mid-tribulational, and post-tribulational perspectives, refining the timing of the rapture to harmonize related biblical passages. It posits that Christians will be raptured after the Great Tribulation—occurring in the second half of Daniel’s seventieth week (a seven-year period)—but before God’s wrath, distinguishing between tribulation, which believers are promised to endure, and divine wrath, from which they are promised deliverance. According to this view, the Antichrist makes a covenant with many at the start of the seven years (Daniel 9:27), but after 3.5 years, he reveals himself through the abomination of desolation, reigning for another 3.5 years (42 months or 1,260 days) while deceiving the world and persecuting the Church. The rapture occurs after the sixth seal is opened (Revelation 6:12), marked by cosmic signs like the moon turning to blood, cutting short the tribulation for God’s people as Christ returns to gather them (Matthew 24:29-31, Mark 13:24-27), while those left behind face God’s wrath through the trumpets and bowls (Revelation 16:1) during the Day of the Lord, which completes the seven-year period.

This perspective retains truths from each major rapture view—acknowledging tribulation’s reality, a mid-period shift, and a post-tribulation gathering—while discarding their perceived errors, focusing on the timing dispute that shapes differing interpretations. Although the exact moment of the rapture remains uncertain, the Prewrath view emphasizes its occurrence post-sixth seal but pre-wrath, offering a framework that seeks to reconcile scriptural tensions and clarify the sequence of end-time events leading to the Parousia and the establishment of Christ’s millennial kingdom.

For more on the Prewrath Rapture see:

The Partial Rapture

The Partial Rapture theory, a less common perspective within premillennial eschatology, posits that only Christians who are actively anticipating and faithfully preparing for Christ’s Second Coming will be raptured, while those who are spiritually complacent, negligent in their faith, or not vigilantly watching for His return will be left behind to endure the tribulation. This view emphasizes personal readiness and spiritual diligence as prerequisites for inclusion in the rapture, suggesting a selective gathering of believers based on their commitment and alertness at the time of Christ’s coming, distinguishing it from other rapture theories that typically include all true believers regardless of their spiritual state.

For more on the Partial Rapture see:

As you can see there is a great debate among the Premillennialists on the timing of the Rapture and the Tribulation. Now on to the other two theological positions on the Millennium.

Judgement Day

The Last Judgment by John Scott

Dispensations and Covenants

To understand modern eschatology we must discuss the religious concepts of dispensations and covenants as they have evolved since the time of the apostles. There are now six major divisions inside Christianity that attempts to explain God's dealing with man since the time of Adam and Eve. These are; Classic Dispensationalism, Progressive Dispensationalism, Covenant Theology, Covenant Premillennialism, New Covenant Theology, Dual Covenant Theology and Supersessionism/Replacement Theology.

Classical Dispensationalism

Classical "Dispensationalism is a theological system that teaches biblical history is best understood in light of a number of successive administrations of God's dealings with mankind, which it calls 'dispensations'. It maintains fundamental distinctions between God's plans for national Israel and for the New Testament Church, and emphasizes prophecy of the end-times and a pre-tribulation rapture of the church prior to Christ's Second Coming. Its beginnings are usually associated with the Plymouth Brethren movement in the UK and the teachings of John Nelson Darby.

History

The Plymouth Brethren movement, emerging as a reaction against the established Church of England’s structure and theology, adopted an anti-denominational, anti-clerical, and anti-creedal stance, and under the influence of John Nelson Darby, developed Dispensationalism, a theological framework emphasizing biblical prophecy and the Second Coming of Christ with a distinctive approach to Scripture that divided history into dispensations. This theology gained traction in America through influential figures and events, notably the Niagara Bible Conferences (1883–1897), where pastor James H. Brookes spread dispensationalist ideas, and evangelist Dwight L. Moody, who, while not fully endorsing every detail, supported its broad outlines and collaborated closely with key dispensationalist leaders like Reuben A. Torrey, James M. Gray, Cyrus I. Scofield, William J. Erdman, A. C. Dixon, and A. J. Gordon. These leaders, through their evangelistic efforts, prophecy conferences, and the establishment of independent Bible institutes—such as Moody Bible Institute (1886), the Bible Institute of Los Angeles (1907), and Philadelphia College of the Bible (1914)—created a lasting institutional network that became the backbone for the spread and entrenchment of Dispensationalism in American evangelicalism.

Theology

The dispensations

Dispensationalism, as articulated by figures like C.I. Scofield (Scofield Reference Bible, 1909), divides biblical history into seven distinct periods, or dispensations, each representing a unique way God interacts with humanity, testing them in matters of sin and responsibility, with each period typically ending in human failure and divine judgment. These dispensations are: 1) Innocence (Genesis 2:8-17,25), before Adam’s fall; 2) Conscience (Genesis 3:10-18; Romans 2:11-15), from Adam to Noah; 3) Government (Genesis 9:6; Romans 13:1), from Noah to Abraham; 4) Patriarchal Rule or Promise (Genesis 12:1-3; 22:17-18; Galatians 3:15-19), from Abraham to Moses; 5) Mosaic Law (Exodus 20:1-26; Galatians 3:19), from Moses to Christ; 6) Grace (Romans 5:20-21; Ephesians 3:1-9), the current Church age; and 7) the Millennial Kingdom (Isaiah 9:6-7; 11:1-9; Revelation 20:1-6), a future literal 1,000-year earthly reign yet to come. While the concept of dividing history into periods appears in earlier works, such as Pierre Poiret’s L’OEconomie Divine (1646–1719) or some early Church Fathers, these lacked the specific testing-failure framework and the theological distinctives—like a sharp Israel-Church divide or a pretribulation rapture—central to the Dispensationalism developed by John Nelson Darby and popularized by Scofield, which sees each dispensation as a divine test that humanity fails, culminating in judgment until the final establishment of Christ’s kingdom at the Parousia.

For more information about Classical Dispensationalism see:

Progressive Dispensationalism

In the late 1980s, a theological shift emerged within dispensational circles as a study group of scholars, meeting before Evangelical Theological Society gatherings, began reevaluating traditional Dispensationalism—originally developed by John Nelson Darby, systematized by L.S. Chafer, and popularized by the Scofield Reference Bible—in response to critiques from covenant theology and perceived weaknesses in the doctrine. This effort, building on revisions by second-wave dispensationalists like John Walvoord and Charles Ryrie in the 1960s and further refinements in the 1970s, led to the emergence of Progressive Dispensationalism, notably articulated in the book Progressive Dispensationalism by Dr. Craig Blaising and Dr. Darrell Bock. This new framework introduced fresh perspectives on key dispensational themes, such as the relationship between Israel and the Church and the nature of God’s kingdom, aiming to address theological inconsistencies while maintaining a commitment to the Parousia and a premillennial view, resulting in journal articles, books, and ongoing debates that have reshaped contemporary dispensational thought.

Summary of Progressive Dispensational Positions

Progressive Dispensationalism, as outlined by Rev. Jack Brooks, refines traditional Dispensationalism while retaining core beliefs, asserting: a single redemptive plan through one New Covenant, uniting Abrahamic and Davidic promises, fulfilled holistically in Christ; four dispensations—Patriarchal, Mosaic, Ecclesial (Church), and Zionic (millennial and eternal phases); one people of God, with the Church distinct from but continuous with Israel, not a mere parenthesis; a complementary hermeneutic where the New Testament expands Old Testament prophecies without negating their context; an “already/not yet” kingdom where some blessings (justification, the Spirit) are present via the Holy Spirit, but geo-political promises for Israel await Christ’s return; and a partial Davidic reign begun at Christ’s ascension, with full fulfillment pending His Second Coming (the Parousia). Brooks maintains dispensational distinctives: the Church’s start at Pentecost, a literal future 1,000-year reign, literal fulfillment of Israel’s geo-political prophecies, Israel’s end-time conversion, Christian freedom from the Mosaic Law, and a future complete Davidic kingship in Jerusalem, distinguishing his view from covenant theology while embracing a nuanced premillennial framework.

Note: Dispensationalism’s Israel-Church distinction emphasizes distinct purposes in salvation history.

For more information on Progressive Dispensationalism see:

Covenant Theology

Covenant Theology teaches that God interacts with humanity through three primary covenants: the Covenant of Redemption, an eternal agreement within the Godhead where the Father appointed Jesus to sacrifice His life for mankind’s salvation, which Jesus willingly accepted (Titus 1:1-3); the Covenant of Works, established with Adam in the Garden of Eden, promising life for obedience and death for disobedience, which Adam broke, bringing sin to all humanity (Romans 5:12-21); and the Covenant of Grace, enacted with all mankind post-fall, offering eternal blessing through faith in Christ and obedience to God’s word. This Covenant of Grace underpins all subsequent biblical covenants—explicitly described in Scripture—with individuals like Noah, Abraham, and David, with Old Testament Israel as a nation, and universally through the New Covenant, unifying God’s redemptive plan across history and culminating in the hope of Christ’s Second Coming (the Parousia).

Covenant Theology and the Biblical Covenants

Covenant Theology posits that God’s relationship with humanity is framed by a Covenant of Works, implied in the Garden of Eden with Adam (supported by Hosea 6:7’s interpretation), promising life for obedience but broken by Adam’s sin, followed by a comprehensive Covenant of Grace that governs all subsequent biblical covenants post-fall. These include the Noahic Covenant, sealed with a rainbow to preserve creation (Genesis 8:1-9; 9:13-17); the Abrahamic Covenant, promising land, seed, and blessing (Genesis 15); the Mosaic Covenant, establishing Israel’s law-based relationship with God (Exodus 19–24); the Palestinian Covenant, an unconditional expansion of the Abrahamic promise ensuring Israel’s eternal land possession (Deuteronomy 30:1-10); the Davidic Covenant, securing David’s lineage as Israel’s rightful kings and tying it to Abraham’s promises (2 Samuel 7); and the New Covenant, foretold by Jeremiah (chapter 31), instituted by Jesus at the Last Supper as “the New Covenant in [His] blood” (Luke 22:20), and elaborated in Hebrews 8–10, which fulfills prior covenants by offering salvation through faith in Christ. These covenants, unified under the Covenant of Grace, trace God’s redemptive plan from creation to the Parousia, with the term “New Testament” reflecting both this theological reality and the biblical canon.

For more on Covenant Theology see:

New Covenant Theology

New Covenant Theology (NCT), primarily found in Baptist circles, presents a middle ground between Covenant Theology and Dispensationalism, offering a theological framework that emphasizes a promise-fulfillment view of Scripture, where the New Covenant fulfills Old Testament promises, particularly in the Church as "spiritual Israel." Unlike Dispensationalism, which sharply separates Israel and the Church, or Covenant Theology, which closely unifies them, NCT sees the Church as distinct but continuous with Israel, with Gentiles as heirs to the Abrahamic Covenant (Galatians 3:8–9; Ephesians 2:11-20) and no future reinstatement of ethnic Israel’s role as in Dispensationalism. NCT agrees with Covenant Theology on points like Calvinistic soteriology, salvation by grace through faith in Christ alone, and inaugurated eschatology, but diverges by rejecting Covenant Theology’s three theological covenants (Redemption, Works, Grace) and viewing the Church as beginning at Pentecost, with no formal “Church” in the Old Testament. It aligns more with Dispensationalism in seeing the Mosaic Law as entirely fulfilled in Christ, replaced by the Law of Christ (1 Corinthians 9:21), which expresses eternal moral commands through New Testament teachings, such as Jesus’ Sermon on the Mount (Matthew 5–7).

The primary distinction between NCT and Covenant Theology lies in their treatment of the Mosaic Law: while Covenant Theology divides it into civil, ceremonial, and moral categories, with the moral law enduring, NCT views the Mosaic Law as a unified whole (all 613 laws), fully replaced by the New Covenant, as Paul suggests believers are “no longer under a tutor” (Galatians 3:25). NCT holds that the Law of Christ, comprising the moral commands of Jesus and the apostles, governs believers, distinct from the Old Testament Law, which served as a temporary means of blessing in Canaan. All NCT adherents support credobaptism and see the Holy Spirit’s work as distinct in the New Covenant, indwelling believers in a way not experienced under the Old Covenant, reinforcing the theology’s focus on the transformative fulfillment of God’s redemptive plan through Christ’s work and the Second Coming.

For more on New Covenant Theology see:

Dual Covenant Theology

Dual-covenant theology is a controversial Christian perspective asserting that Jews can achieve salvation by adhering to the Law of Moses, based on the “everlasting covenant” with Abraham (Genesis 17:13) in the Hebrew Bible, while Gentiles must either convert to Christianity or follow the Seven Laws of Noah to secure a place in the World to Come. Originating with medieval Jewish philosopher Maimonides and developed in the 20th century by Franz Rosenzweig, and theologians like Reinhold Niebuhr and James Parkes, this view interprets Jesus’ message—such as John 14:6 (“No one comes to the Father except through me”)—as applying only to Gentiles, not Jews. Critics, including Messianic Jewish theologian David H. Stern, argue this contradicts the New Testament’s clear teaching that salvation is exclusively through Christ for all, labeling the reinterpretation as a distortion of Scripture. Many conservative Protestants denounce dual-covenant theology as heresy, favoring views that the Law of Moses has been superseded by the New Covenant.

Prominent pastors like John MacArthur, Pat Robertson, Jerry Falwell, and John Hagee have faced accusations of endorsing dual-covenant ideas, but all have denied these claims, asserting they were misinterpreted and reaffirming that salvation comes solely through faith in Jesus Christ. This theology remains contentious, as it challenges the universal necessity of Christ’s atonement central to mainstream Christian soteriology, particularly in relation to the Parousia and final judgment, where traditional views hold that all—Jew and Gentile—must trust in Christ for redemption.

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Supersessionism/Replacement Theology

Replacement theology, also called supersessionism, teaches that the Christian Church has taken the place of national Israel in God’s plan, purpose, and promises, requiring that promises made to Israel—such as restoration to the land—be spiritualized to apply to the Church’s blessings instead. This view holds that the Jewish people are no longer God’s chosen, with the Church assuming that role, the term “Israel” post-Pentecost referring to the Church, the Mosaic Covenant being replaced by the New Covenant (Luke 22:20), and physical circumcision giving way to a circumcision of the heart (Romans 2:29). Thus, the Church becomes the primary vehicle for God’s blessing to the world, fulfilling Israel’s covenants spiritually. However, critics argue this oversteps biblical evidence, citing Romans 11:25-26, which indicates a partial hardening of Israel only until the “fullness of the Gentiles” is complete, followed by the salvation of “all Israel,” suggesting God’s plan for Israel remains distinct and ongoing, not fully supplanted by the Church.

While the Church does take on roles like representing God and proclaiming the Messiah, claiming it completely replaces Israel is contentious, as Scripture affirms Israel’s enduring place in God’s redemptive history, particularly in relation to the Parousia. Replacement theology’s assertion that all references to “Israel” after Pentecost mean the Church is challenged by passages like Romans 11, which distinguish Israel’s temporary hardening from its ultimate restoration, underscoring that God’s covenants with Israel retain a unique, unfulfilled dimension alongside the Church’s mission.

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Conclusion

Studying eschatology over the past few decades has taught me that in Christendom there are a wide variety of beliefs and interpretations of the Bible. These at times can divide us, if we let it. For myself I look forward to the Savior's Second Coming and to be there during the thousand years of peace. I dare say that Jesus, at that time, will unite the Church so that we may be "of one heart and of one soul" (Acts 4:32). Where one Christian will no longer say to the other "I have no need of thee" (1 Corinthians 12:21). The Savior will unite all of the many rival Christian traditions and denominations into one. Then our differences will cease and all will "be perfectly joined together in the same mind and in the same judgment"(1 Corinthians 1:10).

Footnotes:

  1. Rushdoony, Rousas John, The Institutes of Biblical Law (Craig Press 1973), pg. 24
  2. Draper, Richard D. and Rhodes, Michael D. ,The Revelation of John the Apostle ( BYU Press, 2016), 593.
  3. Thayer, Joseph H., Thayer’s Geek-English Lexicon of the New Testament ( Hendrickson Publishers, 1999), 490.
  4. International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, 1915 Revision

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